Variability in spectral absorption within cryptophyte phycobiliprotein types.

Cryptophytes are known to vary widely in coloration among species. These differences in color arise primarily from the presence of phycobiliprotein accessory pigments. There are nine defined cryptophyte phycobiliprotein (Cr-PBP) types, named for their wavelength of maximal absorbance. Because Cr-PBP type has traditionally been regarded as a categorical trait, there is a paucity of information about how spectral absorption characteristics of Cr-PBPs vary among species. We investigated variability in primary and secondary peak absorbance wavelengths and full width at half max (FWHM) values of spectra of Cr-PBPs extracted from 75 cryptophyte strains (55 species) grown under full spectrum irradiance. We show that there may be substantial differences in spectral shapes within Cr-PBP types, with Cr-Phycoerythrin (Cr-PE) 545 showing the greatest variability with two, possibly three, subtypes, while Cr-PE 566 spectra were the least variable, with only ±1 nm of variance around the mean absorbance maximum of 565 nm. We provide additional criteria for classification in cases where the wavelength of maximum absorbance alone is not definitive. Variations in spectral characteristics among strains containing the same presumed Cr-PBP type may indicate differing chromophore composition and/or the presence of more than one Cr-PBP in a single cryptophyte species.

Structure of the antenna complex expressed during far-red light photoacclimation in Synechococcus sp. PCC 7335.

Far-red light photoacclimation, or FaRLiP, is a facultative response exhibited by some cyanobacteria that allows them to absorb and utilize lower energy light (700-800 nm) than the wavelengths typically used for oxygenic photosynthesis (400-700 nm). During this process, three essential components of the photosynthetic apparatus are altered: photosystem I, photosystem II, and the phycobilisome. In all three cases, at least some of the chromophores found in these pigment-protein complexes are replaced by chromophores that have red-shifted absorbance relative to the analogous complexes produced in visible light. Recent structural and spectroscopic studies have elucidated important features of the two photosystems when altered to absorb and utilize far-red light, but much less is understood about the modified phycobiliproteins made during FaRLiP. We used single-particle, cryo-EM to determine the molecular structure of a phycobiliprotein core complex comprising allophycocyanin variants that absorb far-red light during FaRLiP in the marine cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. PCC 7335. The structure reveals the arrangement of the numerous red-shifted allophycocyanin variants and the probable locations of the chromophores that serve as the terminal emitters in this complex. It also suggests how energy is transferred to the photosystem II complexes produced during FaRLiP. The structure additionally allows comparisons with other previously studied allophycocyanins to gain insights into how phycocyanobilin chromophores can be tuned to absorb far-red light. These studies provide new insights into how far-red light is harvested and utilized during FaRLiP, a widespread cyanobacterial photoacclimation mechanism.

Enhancement of phycocyanin productivity and thermostability from Arthrospira platensis using organic acids.

Intracellular hyperaccumulation of phycocyanin (PC) and its high susceptibility to degradation at higher temperatures are major challenging problems associated with its production from cyanobacteria. The present study evaluated different concentrations of organic acids (1, 2, and 3 mM) (citric acid, acetic acid, succinic acid, fumaric acid, and oxalic acid) under fed-batch mode on the biomass and phycobiliproteins' production from Arthrospira platensis. Besides they were evaluated at 2.5-7.5 mM as preservative to stabilize PC at high temperatures. The incorporation of 3 mM of succinic acid into the cultivation medium enhanced the biomass and PC productivity to 164.05 and 26.70 mg L-1 day-1, which was ~ 2- and threefold higher than control, respectively. The produced PC in this treatment was food-grade with a 2.2 purity ratio. The use of organic acids also enhanced the thermal stability of PC. Citric acid (7.5 mM) markedly promoted the half-life values of PC to 189.44 min compared to 71.84 min in the control. The thermodynamic analysis confirmed higher thermostability of PC in the presence of organic acids and indicated the endothermic and non-spontaneity of the thermal denaturation process. The findings of the present study confirmed that organic acids could be utilized as cost effective and sustainable compounds for promoting not only phycobiliproteins' production but also the thermostability of PC for potential application in food industry.

Molecular dissection of the soluble photosynthetic antenna from the cryptophyte alga Hemiselmis andersenii.

Cryptophyte algae have a unique phycobiliprotein light-harvesting antenna that fills a spectral gap in chlorophyll absorption from photosystems. However, it is unclear how the antenna transfers energy efficiently to these photosystems. We show that the cryptophyte Hemiselmis andersenii expresses an energetically complex antenna comprising three distinct spectrotypes of phycobiliprotein, each composed of two αß protomers but with different quaternary structures arising from a diverse α subunit family. We report crystal structures of the major phycobiliprotein from each spectrotype. Two-thirds of the antenna consists of open quaternary form phycobiliproteins acting as primary photon acceptors. These are supplemented by a newly discovered open-braced form (~15%), where an insertion in the α subunit produces ~10 nm absorbance red-shift. The final components (~15%) are closed forms with a long wavelength spectral feature due to substitution of a single chromophore. This chromophore is present on only one ß subunit where asymmetry is dictated by the corresponding α subunit. This chromophore creates spectral overlap with chlorophyll, thus bridging the energetic gap between the phycobiliprotein antenna and the photosystems. We propose that the macromolecular organization of the cryptophyte antenna consists of bulk open and open-braced forms that transfer excitations to photosystems via this bridging closed form phycobiliprotein.

Recent Progress of Natural and Recombinant Phycobiliproteins as Fluorescent Probes.

Phycobiliproteins (PBPs) are natural water-soluble pigment proteins, which constitute light-collecting antennae, and function in algae photosynthesis, existing in cyanobacteria, red algae, and cryptomonads. They are special pigment-protein complexes in algae with a unique structure and function. According to their spectral properties, PBPs can be mainly divided into three types: allophycocyanin, phycocyanin, and PE. At present, there are two main sources of PBPs: one is natural PBPs extracted from algae and the other way is recombinant PBPs which are produced in engineered microorganisms. The covalent connection between PBP and streptavidin was realized by gene fusion. The bridge cascade reaction not only improved the sensitivity of PBP as a fluorescent probe but also saved the preparation time of the probe, which expands the application range of PBPs as fluorescent probes. In addition to its function as a light-collecting antenna in photosynthesis, PBPs also have the functions of biological detection, ion detection, and fluorescence imaging. Notably, increasing studies have designed novel PBP-based far-red fluorescent proteins, which enable the tracking of gene expression and cell fate.

Identification of a c-type heme oxygenase and its function during acclimation of cyanobacteria to nitrogen fluctuations.

The mechanisms of acclimating to a nitrogen-fluctuating environment are necessary for the survival of aquatic cyanobacteria in their natural habitats, but our understanding is still far from complete. Here, the synthesis of phycobiliprotein is confirmed to be much earlier than that of photosystem components during recovery from nitrogen chlorosis and an unknown protein Ssr1698 is discovered to be involved in this synthetic process. The unknown protein is further identified as a c-type heme oxygenase (cHO) in tetrapyrrole biosynthetic pathway and catalyzes the opening of heme ring to form biliverdin IXα, which is required for phycobilin production and ensuing phycobiliprotein synthesis. In addition, the cHO-dependent phycobiliprotein is found to be vital for the growth of cyanobacterial cells during chlorosis and regreening through its nitrogen-storage and light-harvesting functions, respectively. Collectively, the cHO expressed preferentially during recovery from nitrogen chlorosis is identified in photosynthetic organisms and the dual function of this enzyme-dependent phycobiliprotein is proposed to be an important mechanism for acclimation of aquatic cyanobacteria to a nitrogen-fluctuating environment.

Purification and fractionation of phycobiliproteins from Arthrospira platensis and Corallina officinalis with evaluating their biological activities.

Phycobiliproteins (PBPs) are a class of water-soluble pigments with a variety of biological functions that are present in red macroalgae and cyanobacterial species. The crude forms of phycocyanin (C-PC) from the blue green alga Arthrospira platensis and allophycocyanin (APC) from the red macroalga Corallina officinalis were extracted and purified by ammonium sulphate precipitation, anion exchange chromatography, and size exclusion chromatography methods, respectively. The obtained C-PC and APC from A. platensis and C. officinalis were 0.31 mg/mL and 0.08 mg/mL, respectively, with molecular masses of "17.0 KDa and 19.0 KDa" and "15.0 KDa and 17.0 KDa" corresponding to α and ß subunits, respectively. FT-IR was used to characterize the purified APC and C-PC in order to look into their structures. Highly purified extracts (A620/A280 > 4.0) were obtained from subtractions' PC3 and PC4 that were tested for their biological activities. APC and C-PC crude extracts plus their fractions exhibited potent anti-oxidant in different ratios by using three techniques. PC1 showed high anti-inflammatory (75.99 and 74.55%) and anti-arthritic (78.89 and 76.92%) activities for C. officinalis and A. platensis, respectively compared with standard drugs (72.02 and 71.5%). The methanolic and water extracts of both species showed greater antibacterial efficacy against Gram +ve than Gram -ve marine bacteria. Our study shed light on the potential medical uses of C-PC and APC extracted from the tested species as natural substances in a variety of foods and drugs. Further investigations are required to explore the diverse chemical natures of distinct PBPs from different cyanobacteria and red algae because their amino acid sequences vary among different algal species.

Microalgae: A Promising Source of Bioactive Phycobiliproteins.

Phycobiliproteins are photosynthetic light-harvesting pigments isolated from microalgae with fluorescent, colorimetric and biological properties, making them a potential commodity in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food industries. Hence, improving their metabolic yield is of great interest. In this regard, the present review aimed, first, to provide a detailed and thorough overview of the optimization of culture media elements, as well as various physical parameters, to improve the large-scale manufacturing of such bioactive molecules. The second section of the review offers systematic, deep and detailed data about the current main features of phycobiliproteins. In the ultimate section, the health and nutritional claims related to these bioactive pigments, explaining their noticeable potential for biotechnological uses in various fields, are examined.

Cultivation of blue green algae (Arthrospira platensis Gomont, 1892) in wastewater for biodiesel production.

The production of biodiesel has become an important issue in the effort to reduce gas emissions due to the climate change crisis; therefore, algae have widely used to produce biodiesel for energy sustainability. The present study represented an effort to assess the ability of the alga Arthrospira platensis to produce fatty acids involved in biofuel (diesel) by cultivation in Zarrouk media enriched with different municipal wastewater concentrations. Wastewater was used in different concentrations (5, 15, 25, 35 and 100% [control]). Five fatty acids from the alga were determined and included in the present study. These were inoleic acid, palmitic acid, oleic acid, gamma-linolenic acid, and docosahexaenoic acid. Impact of different cultivation conditions were studied in terms of observed changes in growth rate, doubling time, total carbohydrate, total protein, chlorophyll a, carotenoids, phycocyanin, allophycocyanin, and phycobiliproteins. Results showed an increase in the values of growth rate, total protein content, chlorophyll a, and levels of carotenoids at all treatments except for carbohydrate content, which decreased with an increasing concentration of wastewater. The high value of doubling time (11.605 days) was recorded at treatment 5%. Fatty acids yields were increased at treatment 5% and 15%. The highest concentrations of fatty acids were 3.108 mg/g for oleic acid, gamma-linolenic acid (28.401 mg/g), docosahexaenoic acid (41.707 mg/g), palmitic acid (1.305 mg/g), and linoleic acid (0.296 mg/g). Moreover, the range of phycocyanin (0.017-0.084 mg/l), allophycocyanin (0.023-0.095 mg/l), and phycobiliproteins (0.041-0.180 mg/l) were obtained in treatment with 15-100%, respectively. Cultivation with municipal wastewater reduced the values of nitrate, phosphate, and electrical conductivity as well as increased dissolved oxygen. Maximum electrical conductivity was recorded in untreated wastewater with algae, while the highest level of dissolved oxygen was noted at 35% concentration. The use of the household wastewater is more environmentally friendly as an alternative of the traditional cultivation techniques used for long-term for biofuel production.

Phycobiliprotein recovery coupled to the tertiary treatment of wastewater in semi-continuous photobioreactors. Tracking contaminants of emerging concern.

This study evaluated a tertiary wastewater treatment technology using cyanobacteria to recover value-added phycobiliproteins. The presence of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in wastewater, cyanobacterial biomass and pigments recovered were also analyzed. For this, a wastewater-borne cyanobacterium (Synechocystis sp. R2020) was used to treat secondary effluent from a municipal wastewater treatment plant, with and without nutrients supplementation. Then, the stability of phycobiliprotein production was assessed by operating the photobioreactor in semi-continuous mode. Results showed similar biomass productivity with and without nutrients supplementation (153.5 and 146.7 mg L-1 d-1, respectively). Upon semi-continuous operation, the phycobiliprotein content was stable and reached up to 74.7 mg gDW-1. The phycocyanin purity ratio ranged from 0.5 to 0.8, corresponding to food grade (>0.7). Out of 22 CECs detected in secondary effluent, only 3 were present in the phycobiliprotein extracts. In order to identify applications, prospective research should focus on CECs removal during pigment purification.

The Unique Light-Harvesting System of the Algal Phycobilisome: Structure, Assembly Components, and Functions.

The phycobilisome (PBS) is the major light-harvesting apparatus in cyanobacteria and red algae. It is a large multi-subunit protein complex of several megadaltons that is found on the stromal side of thylakoid membranes in orderly arrays. Chromophore lyases catalyse the thioether bond between apoproteins and phycobilins of PBSs. Depending on the species, composition, spatial assembly, and, especially, the functional tuning of different phycobiliproteins mediated by linker proteins, PBSs can absorb light between 450 and 650 nm, making them efficient and versatile light-harvesting systems. However, basic research and technological innovations are needed, not only to understand their role in photosynthesis but also to realise the potential applications of PBSs. Crucial components including phycobiliproteins, phycobilins, and lyases together make the PBS an efficient light-harvesting system, and these provide a scheme to explore the heterologous synthesis of PBS. Focusing on these topics, this review describes the essential components needed for PBS assembly, the functional basis of PBS photosynthesis, and the applications of phycobiliproteins. Moreover, key technical challenges for heterologous biosynthesis of phycobiliproteins in chassis cells are discussed.

Magnetic Fields as Inducers of Phycobiliprotein Production by Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942.

This study aimed to analyze the effect of magnetic field (MF) application on the metabolism of Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942. Concentrations of biomass, carbohydrate, protein, lipid, and photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll-a, C-phycocyanin, allophycocyanin and phycoerythrin) were determined. In cultures with MF application (30 mT for 24 h d-1), there were increases of 47.5% in total protein content, 87.4% in C-phycocyanin, and 332.8% in allophycocyanin contents, by comparison with the control. Allophycocyanin is the most affected pigment by MF application. Therefore, its biosynthetic route was investigated, and four genes related to its synthesis were found. However, the analysis of the gene expression showed no statistical differences from the control culture, which suggests that induction of such genes may occur soon after MF application with consequent stabilization over time. MF application may be a cost-effective alternative to increase production of compounds of commercial interest by cyanobacteria.

Development of a Sequential Fractionation-and-Recovery Method for Multiple Anti-Inflammatory Components Contained in the Dried Red Alga Dulse (Palmaria palmata).

A separation process was established to sequentially fractionate and recover three anti-inflammatory components derived from sugars, phycobiliprotein, and chlorophyll from the hot-air-dried thalli of the red alga dulse (Palmaria palmata). The developed process consisted of three steps, without the use of organic solvents. In Step I, the sugars were separated by disrupting the cell wall of the dried thalli with a polysaccharide-degrading enzyme, and a sugar-rich extract (E1) was obtained by precipitating the other components, which were simultaneously eluted by acid precipitation. In Step II, the residue suspension from Step I was digested with thermolysin to obtain phycobiliprotein-derived peptides (PPs), and a PP-rich extract (E2) was obtained by separating the other extracts using acid precipitation. In Step III, solubilized chlorophyll was obtained by heating the residue, which was acid-precipitated, neutralized, and re-dissolved to concentrate the chlorophyll-related components (Chls)-rich extract (E3). These three extracts suppressed inflammatory-cytokine secretion by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated macrophages, confirming that the sequential procedure had no negative effects on the activities of any of the extracts. The E1, E2, and E3 were rich in sugars, PPs, and Chls, respectively, indicating that the anti-inflammatory components were effectively fractionated and recovered through the separation protocol.

Infrared Signatures of Phycobilins within the Phycocyanin 645 Complex.

Aquatic photosynthetic organisms evolved to use a variety of light frequencies to perform photosynthesis. Phycobiliprotein phycocyanin 645 (PC645) is a light-harvesting complex in cryptophyte algae able to transfer the absorbed green solar light to other antennas with over 99% efficiency. The infrared signatures of the phycobilin pigments embedded in PC645 are difficult to access and could provide useful information to understand the mechanism behind the high efficiency of energy transfer in PC645. We use visible-pump IR-probe and two-dimensional electronic vibrational spectroscopy to study the dynamical evolution and assign the fingerprint mid-infrared signatures to each pigment in PC645. Here, we report the pigment-specific vibrational markers that enable us to track the spatial flow of excitation energy between the phycobilin pigment pairs. We speculate that two high-frequency modes (1588 and 1596 cm-1) are involved in the vibronic coupling leading to fast (

Valuable pigments from microalgae: phycobiliproteins, primary carotenoids, and fucoxanthin.

Phycobiliproteins, carotenoids and fucoxanthin are photosynthetic pigments extracted from microalgae and cyanobacteria with great potential biotechnological applications, as healthy food colorants and cosmetics. Phycocyanin possesses a brilliant blue color, with fluorescent properties making it useful as a reagent for immunological essays. The most important source of phycocyanin is the cyanobacterium Arthrospira platensis, however, recently, the Rhodophyta Galdieria sulphuraria has also been identified as such. The main obstacle to the commercialization of phycocyanin is represented by its chemical instability, strongly reducing its shelf-life. Moreover, the high level of purity needed for pharmaceutical applications requires several steps which increase both the production time and cost. Microalgae (Chlorella, Dunaliella, Nannochloropsis, Scenedesmus) produce several light harvesting carotenoids, and are able to manage with oxidative stress, due to their free radical scavenging properties, which makes them suitable for use as source of natural antioxidants. Many studies focused on the selection of the most promising strains producing valuable carotenoids and on their extraction and purification. Among carotenoids produced by marine microalgae, fucoxanthin is the most abundant, representing more than 10% of total carotenoids. Despite the abundance and diversity of fucoxanthin producing microalgae only a few species have been studied for commercial production, the most relevant being Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Due to its antioxidant activity, fucoxanthin can bring various potential benefits to the prevention and treatment of lifestyle-related diseases. In this review, we update the main results achieved in the production, extraction, purification, and commercialization of these important pigments, motivating the cultivation of microalgae as a source of natural pigments.

Elucidating the origins of phycocyanobilin biosynthesis and phycobiliproteins.

Terrestrial ecosystems and human societies depend on oxygenic photosynthesis, which began to reshape our atmosphere approximately 2.5 billion years ago. The earliest known organisms carrying out oxygenic photosynthesis are the cyanobacteria, which use large complexes of phycobiliproteins as light-harvesting antennae. Phycobiliproteins rely on phycocyanobilin (PCB), a linear tetrapyrrole (bilin) chromophore, as the light-harvesting pigment that transfers absorbed light energy from phycobilisomes to the chlorophyll-based photosynthetic apparatus. Cyanobacteria synthesize PCB from heme in two steps: A heme oxygenase converts heme into biliverdin IXα (BV), and the ferredoxin-dependent bilin reductase (FDBR) PcyA then converts BV into PCB. In the current work, we examine the origins of this pathway. We demonstrate that PcyA evolved from pre-PcyA proteins found in nonphotosynthetic bacteria and that pre-PcyA enzymes are active FDBRs that do not yield PCB. Pre-PcyA genes are associated with two gene clusters. Both clusters encode bilin-binding globin proteins, phycobiliprotein paralogs that we designate as BBAGs (bilin biosynthesis-associated globins). Some cyanobacteria also contain one such gene cluster, including a BBAG, two V4R proteins, and an iron-sulfur protein. Phylogenetic analysis shows that this cluster is descended from those associated with pre-PcyA proteins and that light-harvesting phycobiliproteins are also descended from BBAGs found in other bacteria. We propose that PcyA and phycobiliproteins originated in heterotrophic, nonphotosynthetic bacteria and were subsequently acquired by cyanobacteria.

Phycobiliproteins from algae: Current updates in sustainable production and applications in food and health.

Phycobiliproteins are light-harvesting complexes found mainly in cyanobacteria and red algae, playing a key role in photosynthesis. They are extensively applied in food, cosmetics, and biomedical industry due to bright color, unique fluorescence characteristics and diverse physiological activities. They have received much attention in the past few decades because of their green and sustainable production, safe application, and functional diversity. This work aimed to provide a comprehensive summary of parameters affecting the whole bioprocess with a special focus on the extraction and purification, which directly determines the application of phycobiliproteins. Food grade phycobiliproteins are easy to prepare, whereas analytical grade phycobiliproteins are extremely complex and costly to produce. Most phycobiliproteins are denatured and inactivated at high temperatures, severely limiting their application. Inspired by recent advances, future perspectives are put forward, including (1) the mutagenesis and screening of algal strains for higher phycobiliprotein productivity, (2) the application of omics and genetic engineering for stronger phycobiliprotein stability, and (3) the utilization of synthetic biology and heterologous expression systems for easier phycobiliprotein isolation. This review will give a reference for exploring more phycobiliproteins for food and health application development.

Autofluorescence Imaging to Evaluate Red Algae Physiology.

Red algae (Rhodophyta) contain phycobiliproteins and colonize habitats with dim light, however some (e.g., some Chroothece species) can also develop in full sunshine. Most rhodophytes are red, however some can appear bluish, depending on the proportion of blue and red biliproteins (phycocyanin and phycoerythrin). Different phycobiliproteins can capture light at diverse wavelengths and transmit it to chlorophyll a, which makes photosynthesis under very different light conditions possible. These pigments respond to habitat changes in light, and their autofluorescence can help to study biological processes. Using Chroothece mobilis as a model organism and the spectral lambda scan mode in a confocal microscope, the adaptation of photosynthetic pigments to different monochromatic lights was studied at the cellular level to guess the species' optimal growth conditions. The results showed that, even when the studied strain was isolated from a cave, it adapted to both dim and medium light intensities. The presented method is especially useful for studying photosynthetic organisms that do not grow or grow very slowly under laboratory conditions, which is usually the case for those living in extreme habitats.

Effects of Lead and Zinc Exposure on Uptake and Exudation Levels, Chlorophyll-a, and Phycobiliproteins in Sarcodia suiae.

The present study aimed to determine the changes in the biosorption, bioaccumulation, chlorophyll-a (chl-a), phycobiliproteins, and exudation in the red seaweed Sarcodia suiae exposed to lead and zinc. The seaweed was exposed to ambient lead and zinc environments for 5 days before being transferred to fresh seawater, and the changes in biodesorption, biodecumulation, chl-a, and phycobiliprotein levels in S. suiae were investigated. Lead and zinc biosorption and bioaccumulation in the seaweed increased with the increase in the lead and zinc concentrations and exposure times. Meanwhile, the biosorption and bioaccumulation of zinc in the seaweed following exposure to zinc were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than the biosorption and bioaccumulation of lead in the seaweed following exposure to lead with the same concentration at each exposure time. The chl-a, phycoerythrin (PE), phycocyanin (PC), and allophycocyanin (APC) contents in the seaweed significantly decreased with the increase in the lead and zinc concentrations and exposure times. The chl-a, PE, PC, and APC contents in S. suiae, which was exposed to 5 Pb2+ mg/L for 5 days, were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than those in the seaweed exposed to zinc at the same concentration and for the same exposure times. In the lead and zinc exudation tests, the highest biodesorption and biodecumulation were observed on the 1st day of exudation after the seaweed was transferred to fresh seawater. The residual percentages of the lead and zinc in the seaweed cells were 15.86% and 73.08% after 5 days of exudation, respectively. The biodesorption rate and biodecumulation rate of the seaweed exposed to lead were higher than those of the seaweed exposed to zinc. However, the effect of lead on chl-a and phycobiliproteins was greater than that of zinc. This might be the result of lead not being a necessary metal for these algae, whereas zinc is.

Microalgae-Derived Pigments for the Food Industry.

In the food industry, manufacturers and customers have paid more attention to natural pigments instead of the synthetic counterparts for their excellent coloring ability and healthy properties. Microalgae are proven as one of the major photosynthesizers of naturally derived commercial pigments, gaining higher value in the global food pigment market. Microalgae-derived pigments, especially chlorophylls, carotenoids and phycobiliproteins, have unique colors and molecular structures, respectively, and show different physiological activities and health effects in the human body. This review provides recent updates on characteristics, application fields, stability in production and extraction processes of chlorophylls, carotenoids and phycobiliproteins to standardize and analyze their commercial production from microalgae. Potential food commodities for the pigment as eco-friendly colorants, nutraceuticals, and antioxidants are summarized for the target products. Then, recent cultivation strategies, metabolic and genomic designs are presented for high pigment productivity. Technical bottlenecks of downstream processing are discussed for improved stability and bioaccessibility during production. The production strategies of microalgal pigments have been exploited to varying degrees, with some already being applied at scale while others remain at the laboratory level. Finally, some factors affecting their global market value and future prospects are proposed. The microalgae-derived pigments have great potential in the food industry due to their high nutritional value and competitive production cost.